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Geothermal Energy

Earth's internal heat, fueled by radioactivity, provides the energy for plate tectonics and continental drift, mountain building, and earthquakes. It can also be harnessed to drive electric generators and heat homes. Geothermal energy becomes available in a practical form when underground heat is transferred by water that is heated as it passes through a subsurface region of hot rocks (a heat reservoir) that may be hundreds or thousands of feet deep. The water is usually naturally occurring groundwater that seeps down along fractures in the rock; less typically, the water is artificially introduced by being pumped down from the surface. The water is brought to the surface, as a liquid or steam, through holes drilled for the purpose.

By far the most abundant form of geothermal energy occurs at the relatively low temperatures of 80° to 180° centigrade. Water circulated through heat reservoirs in this temperature range is able to extract enough heat to warm residential, commercial, and industrial spaces. More than 20,000 apartments in France are now heated by warm underground water drawn from a heat reservoir in a geologic structure near Paris called the Paris Basin. Iceland sits on a volcanic structure known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is entirely heated by geothermal energy derived from volcanic heat.

Geothermal reservoirs with temperatures above 180° centigrade are useful for generating electricity. They occur primarily in regions of recent volcanic activity as hot, dry rock; natural hot water; or natural steam. The latter two sources are limited to those few areas where surface water seeps down through underground faults or fractures to reach deep rocks heated by the recent activity of molten rock material. The world's largest supply of natural steam occurs at The Geysers, 120 kilometers north of San Francisco, California. In the 1990s enough electricity to meet about half the needs of San Francisco was being generated there. This facility was then in its third decade of production and was beginning to show signs of decline, perhaps because of over development. By the late 1990s some 70 geothermal electric-generating plants were in operation in California, Utah, Nevada, and Hawaii, generating enough power to supply about a million people. Eighteen countries now generate electricity using geothermal heat.

Extracting heat from very hot, dry rocks presents a more difficult problem: the rocks must be fractured to permit the circulation of water, and the water must be provided artificially. The rocks are fractured by water pumped down at very high pressures. Experiments are under way to develop technologies for exploiting this resource.

Like most other energy sources, geothermal energy presents some environmental problems. The surface of the ground can sink if hot groundwater is withdrawn without being replaced. In addition, water heated geothermally can contain salts and toxic materials dissolved from the hot rock. These waters present a disposal problem if they are not returned to the ground from which they were removed.

The contribution of geothermal energy to the world's energy future is difficult to estimate. Geothermal energy is in a sense not renewable, because in most cases the heat would be drawn out of a reservoir much more rapidly than it would be replaced by the very slow geological processes by which heat flows through solid rock into a heat reservoir. However, in many places (for example, California, Hawaii, the Philippines, Japan, Mexico, the rift valleys of Africa)the resource is potentially so large that its future will depend on the economics of production. At present, we can make efficient use of only naturally occurring hot water or steam deposits. Although the potential is enormous, it is likely that in the near future geothermal energy can make important local contributions only where the resource is close to the user and the economics are favorable, as they are in California, New Zealand, and Iceland. Geothermal energy probably will not make large-scale contributions to the world energy budget until well into the twenty-first century, if ever.

Paragraph 1: Earth's internal heat, fueled by radioactivity, provides the energy for plate tectonics and continental drift, mountain building, and earthquakes. It can also be harnessed to drive electric generators and heat homes. Geothermal energy becomes available in a practical form when underground heat is transferred by water that is heated as it passes through a subsurface region of hot rocks (a heat reservoir) that may be hundreds or thousands of feet deep. The water is usually naturally occurring groundwater that seeps down along fractures in the rock; less typically, the water is artificially introduced by being pumped down from the surface. The water is brought to the surface, as a liquid or steam, through holes drilled for the purpose.

1. According to the processes described in paragraph 1, what is the relationship between radioactivity and the steam produced by geothermal heat?

O Geothermally heated steam is produced when water is exposed to radioactivity deep underground.

O When water is introduced into holes drilled thousands of feet in the ground, it becomes radioactive and turns to steam.

O Radioactivity heats Earth's interior rock, which in turn can heat water to the point it becomes steam.

O When a reservoir of steam in subsurface rock is produced by radioactivity, it is said to be geothermally heated.

2. The word "practical" in the passage is closest in meaning to

O usable

O plentiful

O economical

O familiar

Paragraph 2: By far the most abundant form of geothermal energy occurs at the relatively low temperatures of 80° to 180° centigrade. Water circulated through heat reservoirs in this temperature range is able to extract enough heat to warm residential, commercial, and industrial spaces. More than 20,000 apartments in France are now heated by warm underground water drawn from a heat reservoir in a geologic structure near Paris called the Paris Basin. Iceland sits on a volcanic structure known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is entirely heated by geothermal energy derived from volcanic heat.

3. The word "abundant" in the passage is closest in meaning to

O economical

O familiar

O plentiful

O useful

4. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true about heat reservoirs with a temperature in the range of 80° to 180° centigrade?

O They are under international control.

O They are more common than reservoirs that have a higher temperature.

O Few of them produce enough heat to warm large industrial spaces.

O They are used to generate electricity.

Paragraph 3: Geothermal reservoirs with temperatures above 180° centigrade are useful for generating electricity. They occur primarily in regions of recent volcanic activity as hot, dry rock; natural hot water; or natural steam. The latter two sources are limited to those few areas where surface water seeps down through underground faults or fractures to reach deep rocks heated by the recent activity of molten rock material. The world's largest supply of natural steam occurs at The Geysers, 120 kilometers north of San Francisco, California. In the 1990s enough electricity to meet about half the needs of San Francisco was being generated there. This facility was then in its third decade of production and was beginning to show signs of decline, perhaps because of over development. By the late 1990s some 70 geothermal electric-generating plants were in operation in California, Utah, Nevada, and Hawaii, generating enough power to supply about a million people. Eighteen countries now generate electricity using geothermal heat.

5. According to paragraph 3, what is the connection between underground faults and naturally occurring steam?

O Underground faults enable the heat from molten-rock material to escape upward to regions where it can heat surface water enough to produce steam.

O Underground faults are created by steam that is produced in geothermal reservoirs deep inside Earth.

O Underground faults create spaces in which natural steam is sometimes trapped.

O Underground faults allow surface water to reach deep rocks that are hot enough to turn it into steam.

6. In paragraph 3, why does the author mention that in the 1990s The Geysers was in its third decade of production?

O To provide the historical context of the geothermal production of electricity in the United States

O To imply that The Geysers was the first geothermal site to be put into production in California

O To help explain the signs of decline shown by The Geysers

O To explain why 70 new geothermal sites were put into electricity production in the late 1990s

7. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraphs 2 and 3 about geothermal reservoirs?

O Volcanic heat is associated only with geothermal reservoirs that have a temperature over 180° centigrade.

O More countries produce power from geothermal reservoirs than use them for heating buildings.

O Most geothermal reservoirs are suitable for producing electricity.

O A higher geothermal reservoir temperature is needed to generate electricity than is needed to heat homes.

Paragraph 4: Extracting heat from very hot, dry rocks presents a more difficult problem: the rocks must be fractured to permit the circulation of water, and the water must be provided artificially. The rocks are fractured by water pumped down at very high pressures. Experiments are under way to develop technologies for exploiting this resource.

8. According to paragraph 4, extracting heat from very hot, dry rocks is difficult in part because

O the underground rock must be fractured before heat can be removed from it

O the water above the rock is under very high pressure

O the rock breaks apart when water is pumped into it

O the water circulated through the rock must be much cooler than the rock itself

9. The word "exploiting" in the passage is closest in meaning to

O locating

O increasing

O making use of

O estimating the size of

Paragraph 5: Like most other energy sources, geothermal energy presents some environmental problems. The surface of the ground can sink if hot groundwater is withdrawn without being replaced. In addition, water heated geothermally can contain salts and toxic materials dissolved from the hot rock. These waters present a disposal problem if they are not returned to the ground from which they were removed.

10. How is the problem that the surface may sink related to the problem that water heated geothermally may contain toxic materials?

O Both problems could be solved by returning groundwater that is removed from an underground heat reservoir back to the reservoir after heat is extracted from it.

O The problem of sinking is more difficult to solve than is the problem of toxic materials.

O Land at the surface sinks because the rock beneath the surface is weakened when salts and toxic materials are removed from it in the process of extracting geothermal energy.

O Both problems are caused by the fact that the hot groundwater in a heat reservoir dissolves the rock, which weakens the rock and makes the water toxic with salt.

Paragraph 6: The contribution of geothermal energy to the world's energy future is difficult to estimate. Geothermal energy is in a sense not renewable, because in most cases the heat would be drawn out of a reservoir much more rapidly than it would be replaced by the very slow geological processes by which heat flows through solid rock into a heat reservoir. However, in many places (for example, California, Hawaii, the Philippines, Japan, Mexico, the rift valleys of Africa)the resource is potentially so large that its future will depend on the economics of production. At present, we can make efficient use of only naturally occurring hot water or steam deposits. Although the potential is enormous, it is likely that in the near future geothermal energy can make important local contributions only where the resource is close to the user and the economics are favorable, as they are in California, New Zealand, and Iceland. Geothermal energy probably will not make large-scale contributions to the world energy budget until well into the twenty-first century, if ever.

11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

O Heat flows through solid rock very slowly, so it takes a very long time for geological processes to produce a reservoir of geothermal energy.

O Geothermal energy is not renewable because heat flows very slowly through solid rock into or out of a heat reservoir.

O The heat quickly removed from a heat reservoir is replaced so slowly by geological processes that geothermal energy is not practically speaking, renewable.

O In most cases, heat travels into a heat reservoir so slowly that it is a much quicker process to remove the heat from a reservoir than to replace it.

12. In paragraph 6, the author implies that in California, Hawaii, the Philippines, Japan, Mexico, and the rift valleys of Africa the potential size of the geothermal resource is so large that

O it might be economically worth developing these sites even though geothermal energy is not renewable

O these sites will be the first geothermal energy sites to be developed with new technology

O these sites are likely to make a large-scale contribution to the world energy budget in the twenty-first century

O it does not matter whether they have naturally occurring deposits of hot water or steam

Earth's internal heat, fueled by radioactivity, provides the energy for plate tectonics and continental drift, mountain building, and earthquakes. It can also be harnessed to drive electric generators and heat homes. Geothermal energy becomes available in a practical form when underground heat is transferred by water that is heated as it passes through a subsurface region of hot rocks (a heat reservoir) that may be hundreds or thousands of feet deep. ■The water is usually naturally occurring groundwater that seeps down along fractures in the rock; less typically, the water is artificially introduced by being pumped down from the surface. ■The water is brought to the surface, as a liquid or steam, through holes drilled for the purpose.■

By far the most abundant form of geothermal energy occurs at the relatively low temperatures of 80° to 180° centigrade. ■Water circulated through heat reservoirs in this temperature range is able to extract enough heat to warm residential, commercial, and industrial spaces. More than 20,000 apartments in France are now heated by warm underground water drawn from a heat reservoir in a geologic structure near Paris called the Paris Basin. Iceland sits on a volcanic structure known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is entirely heated by geothermal energy derived from volcanic heat.

13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

In either case, the heated water will usually be under considerable pressure, and so may have a temperature that is well above its sea-level boiling point of 100° centigrade.

Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.

14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor

ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Heat reservoirs in the form of hot rock far beneath Earth's surface are a potential source of usable geothermal energy.

O

O

O

Answer Choices

O Heat reservoirs with a temperature from 80° to 180° centigrade can be used, as in France and Iceland, to heat buildings.

O A number of countries now use geothermal reservoirs that contain water or steam above 180° centigrade to generate electricity.

O Most heat reservoirs with a temperature above 180° centigrade cannot be used for energy because they are usually too close to recent volcanic activity.

O The sinking of land above heat reservoirs and other environmental problems arise when water is pumped into a heat reservoir under high pressure.

O Experiments are under way to determine if geothermally heated waters could be used as a source of certain minerals that have been dissolved out of hot rocks deep within Earth.

O A number of issues, including how to extract heat from reservoirs that do not have a natural supply of water, will significantly limit the use of geothermal energy for the foreseeable future.

参考答案：

1. C

2. A

3. C

4. B

5. D

6. C

7. D

8. A

9. C

10. A

11. C

12. A

13. B

14. Heat reservoirs with ...

A number of countries...()

A number of issues ...

The Origins of Agriculture

How did it come about that farming developed independently in a number of world centers (the Southeast Asian mainland, Southwest Asia, Central America, lowland and highland South America, and equatorial Africa) at more or less the same time? Agriculture developed slowly among populations that had an extensive knowledge of plants and animals. Changing from hunting and gathering to agriculture had no immediate advantages. To start with, it forced the population to abandon the nomad's life and become sedentary, to develop methods of storage and, often, systems of irrigation. While hunter-gatherers always had the option of moving elsewhere when the resources were exhausted, this became more difficult with farming. Furthermore, as the archaeological record shows, the state of health of agriculturalists was worse than that of their contemporary hunter-gatherers.

Traditionally, it was believed that the transition to agriculture was the result of a worldwide population crisis. It was argued that once hunter-gatherers had occupied the whole world, the population started to grow everywhere and food became scarce; agriculture would have been a solution to this problem. We know, however, that contemporary hunter-gatherer societies control their population in a variety of ways. The idea of a world population crisis is therefore unlikely, although population pressure might have arisen in some areas.

Climatic changes at the end of the glacial period 13,000 years ago have been proposed to account for the emergence of farming. The temperature increased dramatically in a short period of time (years rather than centuries), allowing for a growth of the hunting-gathering population due to the abundance of resources. There were, however, fluctuations in the climatic conditions, with the consequences that wet conditions were followed by dry ones, so that the availability of plants and animals oscillated brusquely.

It would appear that the instability of the climatic conditions led populations that had originally been nomadic to settle down and develop a sedentary style of life, which led in turn to population growth and to the need to increase the amount of food available. Farming originated in these conditions. Later on, it became very difficult to change because of the significant expansion of these populations. It could be argued, however, that these conditions are not sufficient to explain the origins of agriculture. Earth had experienced previous periods of climatic change, and yet agriculture had not been developed.

It is archaeologist Steven Mithen's thesis, brilliantly developed in his book The Prehistory of the Mind (1996), that approximately 40,000 years ago the human mind developed cognitive fluidity, that is, the integration of the specializations of the mind: technical, natural history (geared to understanding the behavior and distribution of natural resources), social intelligence, and the linguistic capacity. Cognitive fluidity explains the appearance of art, religion, and sophisticated speech. Once humans possessed such a mind, they were able to find an imaginative solution to a situation of severe economic crisis such as the farming dilemma described earlier. Mithen proposes the existence of four mental elements to account for the emergence of farming: (1) the ability to develop tools that could be used intensively to harvest and process plant resources; (2) the tendency to use plants and animals as the medium to acquire social prestige and power; (3) the tendency to develop "social relationships" with animals structurally similar to those developed with people—specifically, the ability to think of animals as people (anthropomorphism) and of people as animals (totemism); and (4) the tendency to manipulate plants and animals.

The fact that some societies domesticated animals and plants, discovered the use of metal tools, became literate, and developed a state should not make us forget that others developed pastoralism or horticulture (vegetable gardening) but remained illiterate and at low levels of productivity; a few entered the modern period as hunting and gathering societies. It is anthropologically important to inquire into the conditions that made some societies adopt agriculture while others remained hunter-gatherers or horticulturalists. However, it should be kept in mind that many societies that knew of agriculture more or less consciously avoided it. Whether Mithen's explanation is satisfactory is open to contention, and some authors have recently emphasized the importance of other factors.

Paragraph 1: How did it come about that farming developed independently in a number of world centers (the Southeast Asian mainland, Southwest Asia, Central America, lowland and highland South America, and equatorial Africa) at more or less the same time? Agriculture developed slowly among populations that had an extensive knowledge of plants and animals. Changing from hunting and gathering to agriculture had no immediate advantages. To start with, it forced the population to abandon the nomad's life and become sedentary, to develop methods of storage and, often, systems of irrigation. While hunter-gatherers always had the option of moving elsewhere when the resources were exhausted, this became more difficult with farming. Furthermore, as the archaeological record shows, the state of health of agriculturalists was worse than that of their contemporary hunter-gatherers.

1. The word "option" in the passage is closest in meaning to

O choice

O benefit

O idea

O experience

2. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are advantages of hunting and gathering over agriculture EXCEPT:

O It is a healthier lifestyle.

O It requires less knowledge of plants and animals.

O It does not need storage capabilities.

O It is not tied to any specific location.

Paragraph 2: Traditionally, it was believed that the transition to agriculture was the result of a worldwide population crisis. It was argued that once hunter-gatherers had occupied the whole world, the population started to grow everywhere and food became scarce; agriculture would have been a solution to this problem. We know, however, that contemporary hunter-gatherer societies control their population in a variety of ways. The idea of a world population crisis is therefore unlikely, although population pressure might have arisen in some areas.

3. The word "therefore" in the passage is closest in meaning to

O in theory

O obviously

O frequently

O as a result

4. Which of the following best describes the way paragraph 2 is organized?

O A possible explanation for a phenomenon is presented and then criticized

O Two similar ways of accounting for a puzzling fact are considered.

O Early societies' response to a problem is contrasted with contemporary societies' response.

O A prehistoric development is first explained in traditional terms and then in contemporary terms.

Paragraph 3: Climatic changes at the end of the glacial period 13,000 years ago have been proposed to account for the emergence of farming. The temperature increased dramatically in a short period of time (years rather than centuries), allowing for a growth of the hunting-gathering population due to the abundance of resources. There were, however, fluctuations in the climatic conditions, with the consequences that wet conditions were followed by dry ones, so that the availability of plants and animals oscillated brusquely.

5. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

O The resources needed by the growing hunting and gathering population increased rapidly once temperatures rose.

O Dramatic temperature increases and the simultaneous growth of the hunting and gathering population led to the need for more resources.

O Higher temperatures led to the existence of increased resources, thus enabling the hunting and gathering population to grow.

O The dramatic temperature increase occurred during the few years when abundant resources allowed the hunting and gathering population to grow.

6. According to paragraph 3, the abundance of resources fluctuated sharply after the end of the glacial period because

O locally abundant resources were quickly exhausted by hunter-gatherers

O the temperature became much higher in some areas over others

O different types of plants and animals became available as the climate changed

O the amount of rainfall varied radically from one period to the next

Paragraph 4: It would appear that the instability of the climatic conditions led populations that had originally been nomadic to settle down and develop a sedentary style of life, which led in turn to population growth and to the need to increase the amount of food available. Farming originated in these conditions. Later on, it became very difficult to change because of the significant expansion of these populations. It could be argued, however, that these conditions are not sufficient to explain the origins of agriculture. Earth had experienced previous periods of climatic change, and yet agriculture had not been developed.

7. It can be inferred from paragraph 4 that it was difficult for people to change from farming back to hunting and gathering because

O people had become more used to different types of food

O climatic conditions were no longer favorable for hunting and gathering

O populations had become too large to be supported by hunting and gathering

O the farmer's sedentary life was easier than the hunter-gatherer's nomadic life

8. Why does the author state that "Earth had experienced previous periods of climatic change, and yet agriculture had not been developed"?

O To suggest that climate change had occurred long before the development of agriculture

O To argue that climate change does not properly explain why agriculture developed

O To challenge the assumption that agriculture developed only in some parts of the world

O To question the claim that climate change occurred at the time when agriculture developed

Paragraph 5: It is archaeologist Steven Mithen's thesis, brilliantly developed in his book The Prehistory of the Mind (1996), that approximately 40,000 years ago the human mind developed cognitive fluidity, that is, the integration of the specializations of the mind: technical, natural history (geared to understanding the behavior and distribution of natural resources), social intelligence, and the linguistic capacity. Cognitive fluidity explains the appearance of art, religion, and sophisticated speech. Once humans possessed such a mind, they were able to find an imaginative solution to a situation of severe economic crisis such as the farming dilemma described earlier. Mithen proposes the existence of four mental elements to account for the emergence of farming: (1) the ability to develop tools that could be used intensively to harvest and process plant resources; (2) the tendency to use plants and animals as the medium to acquire social prestige and power; (3) the tendency to develop "social relationships" with animals structurally similar to those developed with people—specifically, the ability to think of animals as people (anthropomorphism) and of people as animals (totemism); and (4) the tendency to manipulate plants and animals.

9. The word "imaginative" in the passage is closest in meaning to

O complex

O creative

O immediate

O reliable

10. According to paragraph 5, Steven Mithen believes that all of the following contributed to the emergence of farming EXCEPT

O the development of a mind flexible enough to come up with solutions to complex problems

O the tendency to use plants and animals to acquire power

O the tendency to emphasize the differences between animals and people

O the ability to make tools that could be used for the large-scale harvesting of plants

Paragraph 6: The fact that some societies domesticated animals and plants, discovered the use of metal tools, became literate, and developed a state should not make us forget that others developed pastoralism or horticulture (vegetable gardening) but remained illiterate and at low levels of productivity; a few entered the modern period as hunting and gathering societies. It is anthropologically important to inquire into the conditions that made some societies adopt agriculture while others remained hunter-gatherers or horticulturalists. However, it should be kept in mind that many societies that knew of agriculture more or less consciously avoided it. Whether Mithen's explanation is satisfactory is open to contention, and some authors have recently emphasized the importance of other factors.

11. The word "contention" in the passage is closest in meaning to

O investigation

O improvement

O debate

O interpretation

12. According to paragraph 6, which of the following is a weakness of Mithen's explanation?

O It does not clearly distinguish agriculture from pastoralism and horticulture.

O It fails to explain why some societies adopted agriculture while others did not.

O It explains the domestication of plants and animate but not the development of metal tools.

O It overlooks the fact that illiteracy and low productivity remain problems even today

Paragraph 7: How did it come about that farming developed independently in a number of world centers (the Southeast Asian mainland, Southwest Asia, Central America, lowland and highland South America, and equatorial Africa) at more or less the same time? Agriculture developed slowly among populations that had an extensive knowledge of plants and animals. ■Changing from hunting and gathering to agriculture had no immediate advantages. ■To start with, it forced the population to abandon the nomad's life and became sedentary, to develop methods of storage and, often, systems of irrigation. ■While hunter-gatherers always had the option of moving elsewhere when the resources were exhausted, this became more difficult with farming. ■Furthermore, as the archaeological record shows, the state of health of agriculturalists was worse than that of their contemporary hunter-gatherers.

13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

Because humans had built up this knowledge as hunter-gatherers, it is logical to conclude that over time they would have become extremely efficient.

Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.

14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, click on it. To review the passage, click View Text.

It is unclear why hunter-gatherers in different parts of the world independently developed agriculture at roughly the same time.

O

O

O

Answer Choices

O One obstacle to the transition from a nomadic lifestyle to the sedentary lifestyle required by agriculture was that hunter-gatherers had not developed storage techniques.

O It seems unlikely that agriculture emerged in response to a food shortage brought on by a worldwide population crisis that developed once the whole world was occupied.

O The origins of agriculture maybe linked to climate change at the end of the last ice age, but this does not explain why earlier climatic instability had not led to agriculture.

O The only available means of understanding the social organization and technical abilities of ancient hunter-gatherer societies is the study of contemporary hunter-gatherers.

O One recent theory suggests that the invention of agriculture was made possible by the integration of various mental capacities in the human mind.

O Little is known about why only some societies that adopted agriculture rapidly progressed to using metal tools, becoming literate, and developing a state.

参考答案：

1. A

2. B

3. D

4. A

5. C

6. D

7. C

8. B

9. B

10. C

11. C

12. B

13. A

14. It seems unlikely ...

The origins of ...

One recent theory ...

Autobiographical Memory

Think back to your childhood and try to identify your earliest memory. How old were you? Most people are not able to recount memories for experiences prior to the age of three years, a phenomenon called infantile amnesia. The question of why infantile amnesia occurs has intrigued psychologists for decades, especially in light of ample evidence that infants and young children can display impressive memory capabilities. Many find that understanding the general nature of autobiographical memory, that is, memory for events that have occurred in one's own life, can provide some important clues to this mystery. Between ages three and four, children begin to give fairly lengthy and cohesive descriptions of events in their past. What factors are responsible for this developmental turning point?

Perhaps the explanation goes back to some ideas raised by influential Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget—namely, that children under age two years represent events in a qualitatively different form than older children do. According to this line of thought, the verbal abilities that blossom in the two year old allow events to be coded in a form radically different from the action-based codes of the infant. Verbal abilities of one year olds are, in fact, related to their memories for events one year later. When researchers had one year olds imitate an action sequence one year after they first saw it, there was correlation between the children's verbal skills at the time they first saw the event and their success on the later memory task. However, even children with low verbal skills showed evidence of remembering the event; thus, memories may be facilitated by but are not dependent on those verbal skills.

Another suggestion is that before children can talk about past events in their lives, they need to have a reasonable understanding of the self as a psychological entity. The development of an understanding of the self becomes evident between the first and second years of life and shows rapid elaboration in subsequent years. The realization that the physical self has continuity in time, according to this hypothesis, lays the foundation for the emergence of autobiographical memory.

A third possibility is that children will not be able to tell their own "life story" until they understand something about the general form stories take, that is, the structure of narratives. Knowledge about narratives arises from social interactions, particularly the storytelling that children experience from parents and the attempts parents make to talk with children about past events in their lives. When parents talk with children about "what we did today" or "last week" or "last year," they guide the children's formation of a framework for talking about the past. They also provide children with reminders about the memory and relay the message that memories are valued as part of the cultural experience. It is interesting to note that some studies show Caucasian American children have earlier childhood memories than Korean children do. Furthermore, other studies show that Caucasian American mother-child pairs talk about past events three times more often than do Korean mother-child pairs. Thus, the types of social experiences children have do factor into the development of autobiographical memories.

A final suggestion is that children must begin to develop a "theory of mind"—an awareness of the concept of mental states (feelings, desires, beliefs, and thoughts), their own and those of others—before they can talk about their own past memories. Once children become capable of answering such questions as "What does it mean to remember?" and "What does it mean to know something?" improvements in memory seem to occur.

It may be that the developments just described are intertwined with and influence one another. Talking with parents about the past may enhance the development of the self-concept, for example, as well as help the child understand what it means to "remember." No doubt the ability to talk about one's past represents memory of a different level of complexity than simple recognition or recall.

Paragraph 1: Think back to your childhood and try to identify your earliest memory. How old were you? Most people are not able to recount memories for experiences prior to the age of three years, a phenomenon called infantile amnesia. The question of why infantile amnesia occurs has intrigued psychologists for decades, especially in light of ample evidence that infants and young children can display impressive memory capabilities. Many find that understanding the general nature of autobiographical memory, that is, memory for events that have occurred in one's own life, can provide some important clues to this mystery. Between ages three and four, children begin to give fairly lengthy and cohesive descriptions of events in their past. What factors are responsible for this developmental turning point?

1. The word "ample" in the passage is closest in meaning to

O surprising

O convincing

O plentiful

O questionable

2. According to paragraph 1, infantile amnesia has intrigued psychologists because

O the ability to recount memories prior to three years of age seems to be connected to intelligence in adulthood

O psychologists do not understand why some people are able to recount memories from before the age of three years, while others are not able do so

O psychologists do not understand the connection between infantile amnesia and autobiographical memory

O although psychologists have evidence that infants have memory abilities, most people cannot remember life events that happened before the age of three years

3. According to paragraph 1, what is the evidence that a child has developed autobiographical memory?

O The child is able to remember past events from before the age of three years.

O The child is able to describe past events in a sufficiently lengthy and cohesive manner.

O The child is aware that he or she does not remember experiences from before the age of three years.

O The child is able to give a basic description of the nature of autobiographical memory.

Paragraph 2: Perhaps the explanation goes back to some ideas raised by influential Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget—namely, that children under age two years represent events in a qualitatively different form than older children do. According to this line of thought, the verbal abilities that blossom in the two year old allow events to be coded in a form radically different from the action-based codes of the infant. Verbal abilities of one year olds are, in fact, related to their memories for events one year later. When researchers had one year olds imitate an action sequence one year after they first saw it, there was correlation between the children's verbal skills at the time they first saw the event and their success on the later memory task. However, even children with low verbal skills showed evidence of remembering the event; thus, memories may be facilitated by but are not dependent on those verbal skills.

4. In paragraph 2, why does the author provide the information that children with low verbal skills showed evidence of remembering a past event?

O To provide evidence that memories do not depend only upon verbal skills

O To challenge the idea that one year olds are too young to form memories

O To argue that the memory of one year olds depends only on action-based codes

O To suggest that Piaget later revised his findings on the correlation between memory and verbal ability

Paragraph 3: Another suggestion is that before children can talk about past events in their lives, they need to have a reasonable understanding of the self as a psychological entity. The development of an understanding of the self becomes evident between the first and second years of life and shows rapid elaboration in subsequent years. The realization that the physical self has continuity in time, according to this hypothesis, lays the foundation for the emergence of autobiographical memory.

5. The word "reasonable" in the passage is closest in meaning to

O consistent

O sufficient

O apparent

O deep

6. The word "elaboration" in the passage is closest in meaning to

O development

O specialization

O use

O transformation

7. According to paragraph 3, what is the relationship between autobiographical memory and the development of an understanding of the self?

O Autobiographical memory aids in the development of an understanding of the self.

O Children possess an understanding of the self when they can talk about past events in their lives.

O The realization that the self continues through time may aid in the onset of autobiographical memory.

O The development of autobiographical memory helps children gain an understanding of their roles in their social relationships.

Paragraph 4: A third possibility is that children will not be able to tell their own "life story" until they understand something about the general form stories take, that is, the structure of narratives. Knowledge about narratives arises from social interactions, particularly the storytelling that children experience from parents and the attempts parents make to talk with children about past events in their lives. When parents talk with children about "what we did today" or "last week" or "last year," they guide the children's formation of a framework for talking about the past. They also provide children with reminders about the memory and relay the message that memories are valued as part of the cultural experience. It is interesting to note that some studies show Caucasian American children have earlier childhood memories than Korean children do. Furthermore, other studies show that Caucasian American mother-child pairs talk about past events three times more often than do Korean mother-child pairs. Thus, the types of social experiences children have do factor into the development of autobiographical memories.

8. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as ways in which parents help their children understand the structure of narratives EXCEPT

O talking with their children about past events

O telling stories to their children

O having their children repeat stories back to them

O showing their children that they think memories are important

9. According to paragraph 4, the studies of Caucasian American and Korean children suggest which of the following?

O Autobiographical memories develop similarly across all cultures.

O Parents from different cultures tell their children different kinds of stories about the past.

O Children's pleasure in hearing stories varies from culture to culture.

O The kinds of interactions children have with their parents affect the development of autobiographical memories.

Paragraph 5: A final suggestion is that children must begin to develop a "theory of mind"—an awareness of the concept of mental states (feelings, desires, beliefs, and thoughts), their own and those of others—before they can talk about their own past memories. Once children become capable of answering such questions as "What does it mean to remember?" and "What does it mean to know something?" improvements in memory seem to occur.

10. According to paragraph 5, what evidence is there that a "theory of mind" is a factor in the development of autobiographical memory?

O Even children who are not aware of their mental states are still able to talk about past events.

O Autobiographical memory decreases when a child's feelings and mental state are upset.

O Older children who are unable to achieve awareness of mental states lack autobiographical memory.

O Children's memory of past events grows once children can answer questions about what it means to know and remember.

O

11. The organization of the passage can best be described as

O the presentation of an argument followed by the evidence for and against it

O a description of a phenomenon followed by several possible theories about how it develops

O the definition of a psychological term followed by a history of its usage

O an explanation of a process followed by a discussion of its practical applications

Paragraph 6: It may be that the developments just described are intertwined with and influence one another. Talking with parents about the past may enhance the development of the self-concept, for example, as well as help the child understand what it means to "remember." No doubt the ability to talk about one's past represents memory of a different level of complexity than simple recognition or recall.

12. The passage supports which of the following statements about the development of autobiographical memory?

O It is unlikely that a single factor is responsible for the development of autobiographical memory.

O Jean Piaget was the first psychologist to understand the development of autobiographical memory.

O Understanding the development of autobiographical memory will help psychologists eliminate infant amnesia

O Understanding what it means to remember is the most important factor in the development of autobiographical memory.

Think back to your childhood and try to identify your earliest memory. How old were you? ■Most people are not able to recount memories for experiences prior to the age of three years, a phenomenon called infantile amnesia. ■The question of why infantile amnesia occurs has intrigued psychologists for decades, especially in light of ample evidence that infants and young children can display impressive memory capabilities. ■Many find that understanding the general nature of autobiographical memory, that is, memory for events that have occurred in one's own life, can provide some important clues to this mystery. ■Between ages three and four, children begin to give fairly lengthy and cohesive descriptions of events in their past. What factors are responsible for this developmental turning point?

13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

It is unlikely that this memory will be from the first two years of life.

Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.

14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

The ability to construct autobiographical memories—coherent narratives about events from one's past—is probably the joint product of several social and intellectual developments.

O

O

O

Answer Choices

O Although children are capable of simple recognition and recall very early in life, they do not develop the capacity for autobiographical memory until the age of three or four years.

O Verbal skills and familiarity with narrative structures probably aid in the construction of autobiographical memories.

O Children's earliest autobiographical memories are usually about social interactions with parents.

O Research suggests that infantile amnesia occurs in some cultures but not in others and may be linked to children's social experiences.

O The development of autobiographical memory allows children to appreciate the fact that memories are an important part of their cultural experience.

O Children who have acquired a concept of the self and of various mental states are generally able to talk about their own past memories.

参考答案：

1. C

2. D

3. B

4. A

5. B

6. A

7. C

8. C

9. D

10. D

11. B

12. A

13. A

14. Although children ...

Research suggests ...

Children who ...