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Conversation 1

Narrator: Listen to a conversation between a student and a faculty advisor for the university newspaper.

Student: Hi, I am sorry to bother you, but… Faculty advisor: Yes?

Student: This is about the newspaper.

Faculty Advisor: Oh, Ok. Well. I am only the advisor; the newspaper office is off campus on Pine Street. Eh…what was it? Did you want to work for the paper? We are always looking for writers. Student: Well, my problem was with the writing actually, with an article that was published in yesterday’s newspaper.

Faculty Advisor: Oh? Which one?

Student: The one about the student government and its president Sally Smith.

Faculty Advisor: Is this something to do with what the editor wrote about the statue? Eh, the statue at the main entrance of the university?

Student: Well, that’s part of it. But you know, the editor used the situation to say some really unfair things, about the student government, and the president Sally Smith in particular. I think the paper should publish a retraction, or at the very least an apology to Sally.

Faculty Advisor: Ok. Um… if I remember correctly, what you are referring to wasn’t a news story, but an editorial, right? Eh, it was on the opinion page, it was signed by one of the editors, and was clearly labeled as commentary.

Student: Well, yes. But the thing about the statue, Sally made this simple comment that was in really bad condition and should be replaced. And, well, the tone in the editorial was demeaning. It accused her of not respecting the past and it had some personal stuff that seemed unnecessary. Faculty Advisor: Wait a minute. Remind me.

Student: Well, you know, it implied that Sally doesn’t know much about the university’s history and it called her a big city politician because she’s from Boston. It’s just mean-spirited, isn’t it? Faculty Advisor: Haven’t you heard the saying “all publicity is good publicity”? Student: Well…

Faculty Advisor: I’d say the article is bringing attention to the student government organization, which is pretty invisible. Eh, you rarely hear about what the student government is doing. Student: But this article…

Faculty Advisor: And the piece, well, yeah, it had a bit of an exaggerated tone. It was satirical, or at least it was meant to be. It wasn’t just poking fun at Sally, but the whole idea that our school is sort of rural, and you know, not cosmopolitan.

Student: Well, none of us thought it was very funny.

Faculty Advisor: Well, sometimes it’s best just to roll with it. It is just a cliché; everybody knows it is not true.

Student: But I thought we could expect better than that here.

Faculty Advisor: Well, I am certainly in favor of getting a variety of viewpoints. [so why don’t you go talk to the editor, Jennifer Hamilton, and tell her you want equal time? You or Sally could write a response.]

Student: [Really? She would let us do that? ] Didn’t she write it?

Faculty Advisor: I’ll let Jennifer know you are coming, she feels the same way I do. She is journalism major. She would be happy to publish another point of view.

1. 4，原文说到她来是about the newspaper，说the editor used the situation to say some really unfair things, about the student government, and the president Sally Smith，可见她来的目的是complain

2. 1、3， 男的说这篇文章表明是commentary，且是satirical的，所以选personal viewpoint和humorous

3. 2， 女生说到文章对Sally Smith的评价是mean-spirited的，所以选not respectful 4. 3，男的说这篇文章 is bringing attention to the student government organization, which is pretty invisible，可见这篇文章旨在引起大众对于government organization的关注 5. 4，女生很不相信地问really，可见她并不是convinced

Lecture 1

United States has what’s called a Federal government. In the federal system of government, the power to make laws and regulations is divided between a national government and smaller political units - states, in this case. There are two views of how those powers interact with one another. One view is called dual federalism. Dual federalism says that the national and state governments both have clearly defined powers, though the governments’ power is quite limited. The other perspective, is cooperative federalism. Cooperative federalism, asserts that the national government’s power over the state is not so clearly limited. In fact, it is not clearly defined. A kind national and state governments work together cooperatively. But the national government can’t also impose its power over the states. One competing point of view, after all, the United States Constitution still vows the power of the national government. But the constitutions are relatively short documents, a lot of it until interpretation. In fact, those who wrote it want it that way. To a lot of flexibility, they are actually passive in the constitution that can support either view of federalism. So, from time to time, there are clashes between dual and cooperative applications of federalism. And when that happens, the United States Supreme Court, the country’s highest courts, decides to have the power in the given situation, the state governments, or the national government, and the decisions made by the Supreme Courts are binding on the entire nation, throughout much of US history, until the 20th of century, Supreme Court decisions generally favor dual federalism, deciding that the national government should not infringe on states’ power. But there were a few early Supreme Courts’ decisions that did favor national power. One such case, was the McCulloch. V. Maryland in 1819. McCulloch. V. Maryland addressed the question of whether the national government had power to establish a bank. The Supreme Court said yes, it could establish a bank, a national institution, the court wrote the rule that this national bank could not be cut by the states in which it was located. This decision supported the cooperative federated field. Another significant early case favoring cooperative federalism Gibbons. V. Ogden was decided in 1824. In Gibbons. V. Ogden, the state of New York, wanted to give one steam boat company, the exclusive right to ferry passengers across the river between New York and the neighboring state of New Jersey. The Supreme Court ruled that New York could not make decisions affecting into another state that businesses that affect two states came under the power of the national government. So again, a Supreme Court ruling favored national power, but these cases were really exceptions. We wouldn’t see an overall shift towards cooperative federalism until the 1930s. To explain the timing of the shift, let’s consider the economy of that time. In the decade leading up to the 1930s, the US economy became increasingly interdependent. What do I mean by that? Well, there were major population shifts from rural farming areas to cities, where factories were springing up. So rather than growing their own food, people bought it at grocery stores. ___ relied on distant farms to the food they sold, those farms , which might be in a different state, were using equipment made in factories in that another state. That is one example of economic interdependence. Everyone played a part in an expending, economic

network. In 1929, a stock market crashed sense massive economy into depression, known as the great depression. The new economic interdependence means that the prices in one sector of the economy, the finance in the street ripple through the entire economy. Unemployment became widespread. Now helping the unemployed and other ____ had always been a responsibility of state government. But suddenly, those governments no longer had the resources to help, so the Supreme Court began a supporting law that gave the national government more power. For example, in 1935, a national law gave the employees all stages the right to bargain collectively, in dispute between labor and management. In the past, the high court said that such laws that inference on the right of states to regulate businesses, but now they thought differently. This cram the way from dual federalism and cooperative federalism has continued. But a dynamic tension between the two also continues. And this tension, the struggle between opposing views is actually useful. Because it prevents either the national government or state governments from gaining too much power.

6. 3，主旨题，文章讲到在不同时期，Supreme Court对于两种federalism的不同需求，和对national government和state government的power的诠释，所以选differing perspectives 7. 4，文章提到the two who wrote it wanted it that way，而之前说到constitutions are short of documents，最后听到to the flexibility, 可见选flexible。

8. 2，文章讲到涉及到两个州commerce的事件需要由national government来rule，所以选2 9. 2、3， 文章首先提到了Everyone played a part in an expending, economic network，其次提到了在recession中，national government没有resource，所以高院给了更多权力

10. 1，文章说到两种federalism之间相互制约，防止state或者national government单方面做大，所以有其important purpose 11. 2、4、5

Lecture 2

So continuing with crop domestication in corn, or maize, as it’s often called, obviously, it is one of the world’s most important crops today, it’s such a big part of the diet and so many countries and it’s got so many different uses that is hard to imagine the world without it. But because it doesn’t grow naturally without cultivation and because there

is no obvious wild relative of maize, more to the longest time, researchers were not able to find a clear link between maize and other plants that made it hard for them to trace the history of maize. Now seeing the big theory of the origin of maize first stated coming out in 1930s, one involved a plant called Teosinte. Teosinte is a tall grass that grows wild in certain parts of Mexico and Water Mull. When researcher’s first started looking at wild teosinte plants, they thought there was a chance that the two plants, maize and teosinte, were related. The young wild teosinte plant looks a lot like the corn plants. And the plants continue to resemble each other, at least superficially, even when they develop. But when the scientists examined the fruits of the two plants, it was a different story. When you look at white corns, you see row upon row of tension kernels all those tiny little yellow square that people eat, wholly grown teosinte, on the other hand, has a sting stalk that holds only a dozen of kernels behind the hard, almost stone white teosinte. In fact, based on the appearance of its root, teosinte was mostly considered to be a close relative to rice and to maize. But there is one geneticist, named George Beadle, who didn’t give up so easily on the idea that teosinte might be, well, the parents of corns. While still as a student in 1930s, Beadle actually found that the two plants had very similar chromosomes, very similar genetic information. In fact, he was even able to make kernel hybrid between the two plants. In hybridization, remember, the genes two species of plants remix to produce a new third plant, a hybrid. And it is an offspring of this hybrid, Beadle guessed that this two species were closely related genetically. This new hybrid plants, looked like an intermediate, right between maize and teosinte. So Beadle concluded that maize must have developed many years that is a domesticated form of teosinte. Many experts in the scientific community, however, remained unconvinced by his conclusions. They believed that with so many apparent differences between the two plants, it would be unlikely that ancient, that prehistoric people could have been domesticated maize from teosinte. When you think about it, these people were in a small group, they had to be on the move constantly as the seasons changed. So for them, they selectively agreed to have the patience to be able to pick out just right plants and gradually over generations. Separate out the adorable nutritious maize plant from the Burdal teosinte that easily broke apart. It’s a pretty impressive feat and you can easily see why so many experts would have been skeptical, but as it turns out, Beadle found even more evidence for his theory when he continued his experiment, producing new hybrid, to investigate the genetic relationship between teosinte and maize. Soonly success his experiment, he calculated that only about five specific genes were responsible for the new differences between teosinte and maize. The plants, or otherwise, surprisingly similar genetically. And more recently, botanists have used modern DNA testing to send plants sample collected throughout the western hemisphere. This is allowed them to pi9n point where the domestic maize’s most likely to place, and their research took them to a particular river valley in southern Mexico. They’ve also been able to estimate that the domesticated maize most likely to occur about 9000 years ago. And subsequent archeological field had confirmed this estimate. In one side, archeologists uncovered a set of tools that were nearly 9000 years old. And these tools were covered with a dusty residual, a residual of maize, as it turns out, thus making them the oldest physical evidence of maize that we’ve found so far.

12. 4，主旨题，文章一直在讲人们对于maize，一种modern crop的origin的研究 13. 4，文章讲到两种植物的fruit完全不同，所以选kernels不同

14. 3，由于maize没有单一像corn或者teosinte，所以教授说很可能是两者的hybrids 15. 3，文章提到要杂交出来maize这种作物，需要很复杂的技术，而ancient farmers显然不具备这种能力，所以质疑了George的说法

16. 3，文章有提到，only about five specific genes were responsible for the differences 17. 2，因为科考队发展的stone tools可以证明当时的ancient farmers已经能够制造工具来进行复杂的培训hybrid的过程，所以是maize是corn和toesinte杂交种的佐证

Conversation 2

Student:

Hi, I am looking for this book---the American judicial system. And I can’t seem to find it anywhere. I need to read a chapter for my political science class.

Librarian: Let me check in the computer. Um… doesn’t seem to be checked out and it’s not on reserve. You’ve checked the shelves I assume.

Student: Yeah, I even checked other shelves and tables next to where the book should be. Librarian: Well, it’s still here in the library. So people must be using it. You know this seems to be a very popular book tonight. We show six copies. None are checked out. And, yet you didn’t even find one copy on the shelves. Is it a big class?

Student: Maybe about Seventy Five?

Librarian: Well, you should ask your professor to put some of the copies on reserve. You know about the ‘Reserve system’, right?

Student: I know that you have to read reserve books in the library and that you have time limits. But I didn’t know that I could ask a professor to put a book on the reserve. I mean I thought the professors make that kind of decisions at the beginning of the semester.

Librarian: Oh… they can put books on reserve at any time during the semester.

Student: You know reserving book seems a bit unfair. What if someone who is not in the class wants to use the book?

Librarian: That’s why I said some copies.

Student: Ah, well, I’ll certainly talk to my professor about it tomorrow. But what I am gonna do tonight?

Librarian: I guess you could walk around the Poli-Sci ----- ‘Political Science’ section and look at the books waiting to be re-shelved.

Student: There are do seem to be more than normal.

Librarian: We are a little short of staff right now. Someone quit recently, so things aren’t getting re-shelved as quickly as usual. I don’t think they’ve hired replacement yet, so, yeah, the un-shelved books can get a bit out of hand.

Student: This may sound a bit weird. But I’ve been thinking about getting a job. Um… I’ve never worked at the library before, But…..

Librarian: That’s not a requirement. The job might still be open. At the beginning of the semester we were swamped with applications, but I guess everyone who wants the job has one by now. Student: What can you tell me about the job?

Librarian: Well, we work between six and ten hours a week, so it’s a reasonable amount. Usually we can pick the hours we want to work. But since you’d be starting so late in the semester, I’m not sure how that would work for you. And… Oh… we get paid the normal university rates for student employees.

Student: So who do I talk to?

Librarian: I guess you talk to Dr. Jenkins, the head librarian. She does the hiring 1. 2，主旨题，学生一开始就说明来意，说I am looking for this book

2. 1，图书管理员说it’s not on reserve，但是书架上又找不到，所以他得出结论说people must be using it

3. 1、4，图书管理员说最近有staff辞职了，所以书籍归位到书架上的活就没人干了，他还说everyone who wants the job has one by now，说明大家都找到活儿干了

4. 3，图书管理员说Usually we can pick the hours we want to work. But since you’d be starting so late in the semester, I’m not sure how that would work for you. 可见要挑上班时间不大可能

5. 2，女生说如果有人在用那个copy就不行了，所以图书管理员解释说，这就是为什么我说是some copy的原因了，problem solved!

Lecture 3

You know discussing the music up till now, we’ve established that when music with copies distributed to others, it was always written by hand, you can imagine the tedious nature of that work, right? Today though, I want to turn out attention to printed music. A music that was published through the use of printing process. And we will see that the printing of music actually changed the audience of course, and therefore changed the music itself. Let’s start with a man named ___-. Music printer __ printed the first publication around in near 1500. These were gorgeous publications and they were very expensive to produce, mainly because they required a lot of time and a great deal of position. Printed music became ensure a luxurious object for the upper class. We know from the existing record if you purchase one printed music, you could purchase several, yes, several bodies of literature. The revolution in music printing came around 1520 with a French named Pierre Attaingnant. The first thing Pierre Attaingnant did was to get the assurance from the king that he would be the only one who could set up the music printing shops in all of France. This is, understandable for such a risky enterprise. But I mean, much realistic, without competition, how could use files. Anyway, Attaingnant used the new less expensive way of printing music than ___ did. __ but they were much much cheaper. And therefore, they actually got used. They weren’t just for corporations who displayed on the shelf. And since they got used, the paper itself degraded and we don’t have nearly as many as __. How’s the music Attaingnant print used?

Well, Attaingnant printed lots of songs that people would sang them for their own entertainment in their own home. And this use, this_ called domestic performance, methods of musical arrangement lead it to be the less complex than the arrangement professional musicians to use. This gave rise to a new genre called Parisian chanson. Chanson is a French word – the song, although this genre was popular throughout Europe, it came to be known as Parisian chanson, because so many of the songs were printed ____shops in Paris. And here is a key feature of Parisian chanson. Imagining you’re standing around the dinner table with three French, getting ready to sing a song that has four different vocal parts. In the printed music from we have you’ll be usual line of music. Only the part you personally sing in front of you. Oh, that makes sense. Then we will be the distracted and confused by everyone else’s part, right? True, but actually having only your part could make it a bit more challenging because you might not know what everybody else is about to sing or even who supposed to sing first. Like,

thinking of orchestra with different instruments, not all of them start playing right at the beginning of the song, maybe violins start, and the chimes coming later and so on. But an orchestra has a conductor to tell the musician when to start, but there is no conductor in your dining room, so the composers of Parisian chanson were surrounded by having all four boys to start at the same time and in the same rhythm. Now as the song progressed, the rhythm, melodies and harmony did get more difficult, more lyric. But these songs always had everyone sing in the same pattern at the beginning, so this is a very interesting moment in music history, whereas it’s very clear that the business side of music, that we can say the selling of printed music by Pierre Attaingnant and those followed, the business and the music, say artistic and the technology that allowed Pierre produced inexpensive prints, affected music itself, by leading to the creation of the entirely new genre of music.

6. 2，主旨题，文章讲到了music printing的发展史

7. 4，文章说买一份printed music的钱可以买several volumes of literature了，可见cost很高 8. 3，因为Attaingnant跟国王申请了exclusive right来印刷music，垄断一定能使他赚钱 9. 3、4， 文章介绍了香颂曲，提到因为没有conductor，所以composer在作曲的时候会注意，所以的vocal part都是同一时间同一个rhythm起调的 10. 2，文章借由orchestra来解释Chanson的不同之处

11. 3、4，文章介绍了香颂曲，提到因为没有conductor，所以composer在作曲的时候会注意，所以的vocal part都是同一时间同一个rhythm起调的

Lecture 4

One consequence of global warming is extinction. There's compelling evidence that global warming will be a significant driver of many plant and animal extinctions in this century. So we are considering various strategies to help some threatened species survive this unprecedented, this warming trend which, as you know, is caused mainly by greenhouse gases produced by the burning of fossil fuels.

Um... the most radical strategy being debated among conservation biologists is Assisted Migration. Assisted migration means picking up members of a species, or members of a group of interdependent species and physically moving or translocating them. Um... translocating threatened species to a cooler place, to higher latitudes or higher elevations, for example.

Now, migration is a natural survival strategy. Over the past two million years, colder glacial periods

have alternated with warmer interglacial periods. And so, um, in response to these gradual climatic swings, some species have shifted their ranges hundreds of kilometers.

So perhaps you are wondering why not let nature take its course now? Well, we can't. The main problem is today's fragmented habitats. During previous interglacial periods, when glaciers retreated, they left behind open land in their wakes. Today human development has paved over much of the natural world. Ecosystems are fragmented. Housing developments, highways and cities have replaced or sliced through forests and prairies. There are a few quarters left for species to migrate through without help. So conservationists are trying to save as many species as possible.

Now, assisted migration could become a viable part of our rescue strategy, but there are a number of uncertainties and risks. Without more research, we can't predict if Assisted Migration will work for any given species. A translocated species could die out from lack of food, for example. At the other extreme, we might successfully translocate the species, but within five or ten years that species could proliferate and become an invasive species. Like a non-native plant that chokes out native plants by hogging the nutrients in the soil. Translocated animals can become invasive too. It happened in Australia. The cane toad was introduced back in 1935 to control an insect pest that was destroying Australia's sugarcane plantations. But the cane toad itself became a pest and has destroyed much of the wildlife on that continent.

Also, many species are interdependent, intimately connected to one another. Like animals that eat a certain plant and that plant relies on a certain fungus to help it get nutrients from soil and on a certain insect for pollination. We probably have to translocate entire networks of species and it's hard to know where to draw the line.

And in addition to all that, it is not even clear that assisted migration or any migration for that matter, will help at least for some species. Earth was already in one of its warm interglacial periods when we started burning fossil fuels. And in the twenty-first century, global temperatures are expected to rise two to six degrees. That rate of heating is far greater than during the last glacial retreat some 12,000 years ago.

Um ... whether to use Assisted Migration, this debate is mostly within the biology community right now. But the ultimate decision-makers, in the United States at least, will be the government agencies that manage natural resources. Assisted Migration really needs this level of oversight, and soon. Currently there's no public policy on using assisted migration to help species survive climate change. People aren't even required to seek permits to move plants or invertebrate animals around as long as they are not classified as pests. In one case, a group of conservationists has already taken it upon itself to try on their own to save an endangered tree, the Florida Torreya tree, through Assisted Migration.

There's only about a thousand individual Florida Torrey as left. And global warming is expected to significantly reduce or eliminate this tree's habitat. So this conservation group wants to translocate seedlings, Florida Torreya seedlings, 500 kilometers north in order to expand the species' range. The group believed its effort is justified, but I and many other biologists will be watching very closely how this maverick group makes out, because like I said, there could be unintended consequences. 12. C，主旨题，文章讲了assisted migration这种debated的方法来帮助threatened animals survive

13. A，动物的habitats，由于人类活动，变得fragmented，所以assisted migration是通过人类帮助，使动物可以越过这些人为开垦的unnatural的地域

14. B，文章通过cane toad的例子来说明新物种在新环境中有可能大量繁殖

15. A，文章说很多的生物是interdependent的，要translocate一种，其他相关的物种也要一起迁移，这显然是不可能的

16. D，文章说最终来做这个决定的是government，所以政府不能置身事外

17. B，对于Torreya的例子，教授说会watching very closely，因为有可能会有unintended consequences

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