2018年7月1日托福阅读考试机经回忆【新航道版】

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Passage 1

TopicDinosaurs and Parental Care

Content Review

仅从化石证据来看，恐龙是否关心自己的后代这一问题很难回答。因为行为没有保存在化石记录中，我们只能通过间接证据来推断。孵化方式分两种：prehatching和posthatching我发现了大量的恐龙巢穴。大部分可能属于鸭嘴龙。在这些巢穴中保存的是恐龙幼仔的骨头Egg Mountain和世界上其他地方的发现表明恐龙是在巢穴中产卵的。

Egg Mountain的巢穴之间的间隔是相等的，以便能够在拥挤的筑巢群体中进行孵化。证明了至少这些恐龙孵化了它们的巢穴。

关于父母照料的证据更有争议。在蛋山有许多小恐龙骨头都与下颚和牙齿有关，牙齿有磨损的迹象。所以这些食物可能是由觅食的成年人带来的，但这种解释是错误的。目前很难有古生物学的发现能够解决这一争论。

恐龙有parental care system的最强有力证据是基于恐龙及其近亲之间的关系。举了鸵鸟，鳄鱼等例子。

原文： From fossil evidence alone the question of whether or not dinosaurs cared for their young is very difficult to answer. Because behaviors are not preserved in the fossil record, we can only make inferences from indirect evidence. Parental care can be divided into two types of behavior: prehatching (building nests and incubating eggs—for example, sitting on top of them so as to warm the eggs and encourage hatching) and posthatching (feeding the young and guarding the nests). Most of our evidence comes from alleged dinosaur rookeries (places where nests are built). Several have been excavated in eastern Montana, where a large concentration of dinosaur nests was found at a place now called Egg Mountain. Most of these probably belonged to the hadrosaur Maiasaura. Preserved in these nests are the bones of baby dinosaurs. The finds at Egg Mountain and other sites around the world document that dinosaurs land their eggs in nests.

The nests at Egg Mountain are reported to be equally spaced, separated by a space corresponding to the length of an adult Maiasaura. From this arrangement scientists have inferred that the nests were separated in this way to allow incubation in a tightly packed nesting colony. Although this interpretation is open to challenge, the discovery of Oviraplor adults on top of Oviraplor egg clutches (as determined by embryos in some eggs), is relatively powerful evidence that at least these dinosaurs incubated their nests.

Evidence for parental care following hatching is much more controversial. Behavioral speculation based on indirect fossil evidence is dangerous because the data is not always as unambiguous as might appear. At Egg Mountain, many nests contain baby dinosaur bones. Not all the dinosaurs in the nest are the same size. Many of the small bones found in the nests are associated with jaws and teeth, teeth that show signs of wear. It seems reasonable to assume that the wear was caused by the chewing of the coarse plants that were the hatchlings’ diet. Because the young were still in the nest, this food may have been brought to the rookery by foraging adults. This line of reasoning suggests that these animals had an advanced system of parental care. A closer look at the evidence clouds this interpretation. Analysis of dinosaur embryos indicates that worn surfaces are present on the teeth of juveniles even before hatching. Just as a human baby moves inside the mother before birth, modern-day archosaurs also grind their teeth before birth, wearing the surface in some spots. Thus, the fossil evidence for an advanced parental care system in extinct dinosaurs is suggestive but inconclusive, and it is hard even to imagine the sort of paleontologic discovery that could settle this debate for good.

The strongest evidence that extinct dinosaurs had some form of advanced parental care system is based on an understanding of the phylogenetic relationships among dinosaurs and their closest living relatives. Living dinosaurs (birds), even primitive ones such as ostriches and kiwis, exhibit parental care, so some form of parental care can be inferred to have existed in the last common ancestor of all birds. Although unappreciated, crocodiles are reptiles that are also caring parents. They build nests, guard the nests, and in some cases dig their young out of the nest when they hear the chirping young ones hatching. The young even communicate with each other while still in the egg by high-frequency squeaks (as birds do). Some evidence suggests that this squeaking is a cue for the synchronization of the hatching. Since birds and crocodiles share a common ancestor, the simplest explanation for the characteristics they share (such as nest building and some form of parental care) is that they evolved only once—that these attributes were present in their common ancestor and passed on to its descendants. Because extinct dinosaurs also descended from that ancestor, the simplest and most general theory is that extinct dinosaurs also shared these characteristics, even though they cannot be directly observed, and we cannot be sure how elaborate their parental care was.

Passage 2

TopicAustralian Megafauna Extinctions

Content Review

段：人类导致mammal和 megafauna的灭绝，灭绝的物种size从 大到小。

第二段：有人觉得是人类而不是气候导致的灭绝，原因：在早前的非洲，气候很干旱，气候的变化并没有导致很多动物灭绝。

第三段：反对前面的说法，觉得是气候导致的，原因1，干旱确实不利于动物生存，原因2，以前所有灭绝都是气候导致的;原因3，前者加说证据不确定

第四段：E.K又觉得以上说法太武断，觉得只考虑了"food limitation"而没考虑”predation limitation"'人类才是导致灭绝的关键因素

(重复2017.10.29考题)

Passage 3

TopicLife on Mars

Content Review

段，引入话题：火星上曾经存在的水和大气可能孕育出生命，就在十亿多年前火星进入今天的冰期之前，可能出现生命;

第二段，在火星进入寒冷冰期前，可能出现的生命形式是原始的细菌等微生物(microbes)，但人类无法去火星上检测这些生命是否存在;

第三段，在地球上人类也可以观测火星的生命——利用来自火星的陨石(meteorites)，这些陨石中所捕捉到的气体成分和火星大气成分完全匹配，因此证实这些陨石确是来自火星;

第四段，对火星的陨石分析发现其中含有碳酸盐类物质(carbonate matter)，碳酸盐类物质的生成必须有水存在，因此证实了科学家先前对于火星大气和地表存在水的推测，也与先前来自火星探测器的照片相符，照片中显示了由水侵蚀所形成的河道;

第五段，研究证实来自火星的陨石中含有原始生命，其结构和地球上的原始细菌(primitive bacteria)相似，都能够产生富含铁的化学晶体(iron-rich chemical crystals)，这些化学晶体以小泪滴状显现于陨石中，正好存在碳酸盐类物质消溶的地方(where the carbonate has dissolved);

第六段，最后一个表明火星陨石中含有原始生命的证据是一个极其微小的椭圆形结构，被编码为ALH84001碳酸盐球体(carbonate globules)，该球体向外放大看起来极像地球上的细菌，但其尺寸太小，并且其内部没有发现氨基酸、半透膜(semipermeable membranes)、或其他内腔(internal cavities)以承载生物体液而行使生物功能，因此被一些科学家质疑是否是真正的早期生

Passage 4

TopicNaturalism and Nature in Art

Content Review

希腊亚里士多德时期开始崇尚自然主义，认为艺术就是生动再现客观事物，但也包括 fiction as unicorns。个例子：Z(人名)和J(人名)关于谁在艺术方面更有造诣的比拼，Z画了一串葡萄，引得鸟儿来啄;但是J的画作是窗帘(curtain)。Z看到这个窗帘后让他的对手摘掉窗帘，展画作。但是curtain其实是后者画的。所以Z认输。

第二个例子，关于画花。进一步说明自然主义。那个时候开始画些flowers(比如tulip)有了代表的意义。

但是慢慢有expressionist不再忠实于自然主义，有人认为photography。不仅仅是camera的决定，更是人的选择。达芬奇也认为观察(observation)带来的仅仅是相似(likeness)，复制(copy )就是照镜子(mirror)，艺术应该更多涉及智慧的创造力(intelligent activity)和内心生活(inner life)，including energy and strength. Georgia在画 Connolly的时候也更注重表现其本质(essence)，而不是影像(image)。

Passage 5

TopicChanges in the early modern European states

Content Review

段讲了欧洲经历的一系列的社会变化，尤其是政治层面。后面几段主要讲了欧洲国家开始意识到nationality，即领土的完整，语言的统一common language等。另外，欧洲国家也开始意识到rationality，主要受到中国的等级(hierarchy)的影响，社会开始分层。

另外法国首先开始扩大government power，但是法国的政府并没有有效执行它制定的一些举措，而是通过战争扩大领土。不过法国的的关于政府权利和效率的做法随后背其他国家模仿follow和推崇。

最后一段，主要讲了英国和荷兰的情况，和其他欧洲国家的情况不太一样。荷兰建造了个监狱。英国的monarchy的不同则主要体现在两方面，一是给了议会(parliament)更大的权利，另外限制公民的宗教信仰自由religious freedom。

Passage 6

TopicBiomass energy

Content Review

段讲了生物物质能源(biomass energy) 的定义，来自于植物 plants，未来或许可以用于替代化石燃料(fossil fuel)的新能源(new energy resource)。 第二段讲了biomass energy的开发会可能给环境和一些物种(species )带来压力(pressure)。然后举了印度的一处森林的例子。由于森林砍伐(deforestation)，这个地区的物种的栖息地受到影响。始果进一步开发生物物质能源，给环境带来的影响或许不可逆。后面讲了biomass energy的开发和运用。如果biomass得到合理的运用，比如及时补充被砍伐的森林和植物，就不会对环境的二氧化碳的含量造成影响。最后一段作者展望了biomass的未来，有无潜力可以替代石油进口。作者先写了美国的一些地方 biomass energy的储量还是很大的，因为有足够的闲置的土地idle farmlands可以用来种植所需的植物。但是biomass energy 并不一定能够代替fossil fuel。

Passage 7

TopicThe origins of Plant and Animal Domestication

Content Review

首先介绍动植物驯化的概念，后面提到对动植物的驯化代表了人和地球资源相互作用之间发生了巨大的变化。最后讲动植物驯化对人类社会的作用和影响，农业的发展也伴随着人类社会组织的根本变化：财富分化，权利登记差异和城镇化。

Passage 8

TopicPlanetary Formation

Content Review

说的是生命的形成。刚开始说地球早期火山爆发使得地球上有很多大气，后来就形成了一些简单的植物，后来这些植物吸收了那些甲烷和二氧化碳光合作用产生了氧气和水(后来有了海)，那些简单生物就在海里形成了。洋气多了以后形成了一个氧气保护膜，使得地球气温不太高，生物不受SUV伤害，太阳系上其他行星因为没有这个氧气保护层所以没办法形成生命。

Passage 9

Topic建造大坝的影响

Content Review

美国建造大坝，介绍了对环境的影响以及重建的原因，有些环保人士反对的大坝

Passage 10

Topic古希腊青铜马雕像

Content Review

重复2018-3-31 加试新题

monumental=enormouspresumably=probably

manipulated=skillfully useddeteriorating=worsening

pursue=practiceaccompanied=gone together with

subsistence=survivalprogressive =increasing

diminishing=reducingfragmented =broken apart

rudimentary =primitivefaithfully=accurately

controversial = debatedadmiration for = high opinion of

hence= thusfragile=delicate

perceived=seenexceedingly=extremely

compressing=squeezing togethercomplicated=difficult to understand

contract=become smalleralleged=supposed

controversial=debatableinconclusive=not decisive

repudiation=rejectionsleek=smooth

hierarchy=ranking orderlyinstall=put in order

inevitably=unavoidablyidle=unused